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Introduction
Religion has been a powerful influencing factor on the development of civilization and
culture. It is inexorably linked to the history of the world. Throughout the following paper, I am
going to attempt to analyze different belief systems and how they affect society and the
individuals who practice them. I will also discuss some broader topics regarding religion and
related issues.
The Six Religions
Judaism
The first religion I am going to deal with is Judaism. I say religion because that is the
emphasis of this paper, but Judaism is not just a religion. Roughly half the people of the world,
who refer to themselves as Jews, do not practice any religious observance. Many of them do not
believe in a supreme being. So what constitutes being Jewish. Are they a race? In the 1980’s, the
Supreme Court of the United States ruled that Jews are a race, at least for the purposes of certain
anti-discrimination laws. While intended to protect, this decision offended many Jews as it
evoked images of Nazi Germany where Jews were declared to be not just a race, but also an
inferior race. Emotional issues aside, however, race is recognized in most of the world as being
determined by DNA. We cannot say then, in the strictest sense, that Judaism represents a race.
Judaism can also not accurately be referred to as an ethnicity or a culture. Much of what
is usually associated with being Jewish (the food, the Yiddish language, the emphasis on
education) is actually derived from Azkenazic culture. Azkenazics are Jews from Germany,
Eastern France, and Eastern Europe. There are also the Sephardic Jews from Spain, Portugal,
North Africa, and the Middle East. Not all Jewish cultural traits are universal. So Judaism cannot
be described as a culture.
Jews can most accurately be referred to as a nation. Not a nation in the sense of territorial
boundaries, but a nation in the sense of a common history, and in their belief, a common destiny.
There is also a sense of connectedness to each other that I found exhibited in even the most
Atheistic Jew. A study of the tenets of Judaism, even in a religious sense, cannot be separated
from the “nationalism” and history of the Jewish people.
Judaism as a religion is very communal in practice. All prayers are stated in the plural.
Many of the holiday observances are organized within large family or community groups. The
sense of community, in part, seems to stem from a shared empathy of their history of suffering
persecutions. Common suffering often acts as a galvanizing force. Many Jews feel more united
by this shared history, than they do by dogma or formal beliefs. However, there are some basic
tenets for those who practice the religious faith of Judaism.
The closest thing to a universally accepted set of guidelines for Jewish religious beliefs is
Rambam’s thirteen principles of faith. Rambam (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon) is considered one of
the greatest medieval Jewish scholars. He intended this list to be a minimum set of requirements
for Jewish belief. They are:
1) God exists.
2) God is one and unique.
3) God is incorporeal.
4) God is eternal.
5) Prayer is to be directed to God alone and no other.
6) The words of the prophets are true.
7) Moses’ prophecies were true, and Moses was the greatest of the prophets.
8) The written and oral Torah (Old Testament, and discussions on such) were given to
Moses.
9) There will be no other Torah.
10) God knows the thoughts and deeds of men.
11) God will reward the good and punish the wicked.
12) The Messiah will come.
13) The dead will be resurrected.
Though these concepts are nearly universal, they are subject to wide interpretation. Practical Judaism focuses more on relationships and actions. Though their belief in God is important to those of devout faith, the relationship between Jews, and more broadly between all people, is the focus of daily practice for most. Behavior is governed by 613 commandments (Mitzvot) regarding every aspect of life from how you treat others, to how you eat and dress. The Mitzvot are classified into 10 categories which people mistakenly call “The 10 Commandments.” These Mitzvot differ from Rambam’s principles in that they are more directly related to daily life, as opposed to abstract concepts of existence. In practical terms, for most Jews, the Mitzvot prohibit lying, murder, adultery, stealing, covetous behavior, and character assassination. They encourage respect for parents and teacher, and in general, for all people. Some of the more obscure Mitzvot govern behavior in greater detail. “Do not eat unclean animals” or “do not eat winged insects” are two examples. Many of the commandments are no longer practical such as“do not exclude an Egyptian from the community of Israel for three generations.” Nobody follows all 613 commandments, but the deeply religious make every effort to follow all the commandments that are possible within their communities. The average person tries to follow the axiom set down by Rabbi Hillel in The Talmud (a record of oral commentary on the Torah). It reads “What is hateful to you, don’t do to your fellow man.” This axiom is the distilled essence of practical Judaism. It is the minimum goal of all practicing Jews. Even most of the nonpracticing Jews I’ve encountered attempt to live in the spirit of this sentiment. They might refer to it as “secular humanism,” but the essence is the same.
As far as religious practices, there are many ways of defining what constitutes someone
who is deeply religious versus the average person. The question really depends on what branch
of Judaism you examine. Orthodox Judaism is the strictest. They believe in a literal interpretation
of the Mitzvot. (They are strict laws from God.) Since many of these rules are incompatible with
mainstream society, they often isolate themselves from non-Orthodox people. Even the most
liberal of Orthodox Jews would seem deeply religious to outsiders. (As a side note, there are
reformists even within Orthodoxy, who have managed a limited integration within society.) The
basic tenets of Orthodoxy are: daily worship, dietary laws, intensive study of the Torah, and
separation of men and women. They also do not permit music during communal services. Most
Orthodox Jews respect these basic rules. At the extreme, Orthodoxy represents a total,
fundamentalist, rejection of everything modern as being sinful.
Conservative Judaism believes, as does Orthodox Judaism, that the 613 Mitzvot are the
literal words of God. However, to a conservative, it is not enough to simply say “because God
said so”, they must understand the “why” and “how” of the law for it to exist as a reality in their
lives. Conservative Judaism is more open to others in society. They do not reject modernity
outright, but are at odds with modern thinking on science and philosophy. Women are still
considered “less” then men, but have a place within the synagogue, and a greater function within
the home. A devout Conservative Jew will formally pray three times a day, study the Torah
daily, follow a Jewish diet, organize their household in a traditional Jewish way (the family
hierarchy [father, mother, children]), and spend their leisure time advancing themselves as a Jew
(contemplating the meaning of the Mitzvot). A less zealous Conservative will probably attend
communal services on a fairly regular basis (their Sabbath is on Saturday), but observe little else
in the way of formal protocol. The feeling from those I talked to seem to be that the essence of
behavior towards others is the most important practice. That essence once again is “What is
hateful to you, don’t do to your fellow man.”
It is harder to define what exactly constitutes a Reform Jew, because one of the guiding
principles of Reform Judaism is the autonomy of the individual. A Reform Jew has the right to
decide whether or not to subscribe to a particular belief or practice. In general, Reform Jews feel
it is their goal to improve the world. They believe in the Mitzvot, but as guiding principles
inspired by God, not strict laws dictated by God regulating behavior. They believe that different
times and circumstances call for a different understanding of the Mitzvot, and therefore these“rules” are subject to ongoing interpretation and evaluation. Reform Jews consider some of the
Mitzvot to be outdated and inapplicable to these times and certain circumstances. They recognize
the “Holy days,” and observe their “Sabbath.” Their main principle is to act in what they
consider a moral and ethical way. In that sense, they regard the “primary” Mitzvot (those
regarding the treatment of others) as a template of moral and ethical behavior. Reform Judaism
believes in the equal rights of women, gays, and racial minorities, a value system that is fairly
unique among the three major religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam). Reform Judaism
seems to be a practice of non-judgment. Reform services may have music. Reform Jews may
even not believe in a supreme being, or their concept of that being may differ from person to
person. People of this belief system do not fit into the “deeply religious” category when
compared to other forms of Judaism, however, there is probably the widest range of devotion
among Reformists as opposed to Orthodox or Conservative Jews. A Reformist may attend
regular services, but may attend them for the purpose of developing a sense of community rather
than for worship. One person cannot be called more “religious” than another in Reform Judaism,
simply because there are no definitive rules as to what being “religious” entails.
I will spend the least time on Reconstructionist Judaism as they are by far the smallest,
least religious, and least defined group of Jews. Reconstructionist Judaism is an “evolving”
religion. There are few set rules, but they are strict on observances. Their religious gatherings
and studies are based on history and society, not hypothetical abstract theology.
Reconstructionists view Judaism as a product of history, not a revelation from God. They believe
all religion to be a product of man, and no one religion has a monopoly on religious truth.
Reconstructionists focus on the future while respecting the past, and are fully active and
participatory in secular life. They could even be called “agnostic” in some senses, as their focus
is on improving society, not spreading religious dogma. There is little range in practices among
Reconstructionists. While some attend services to a greater extent than others, religious devotion
is a smaller part of this movement than others, so there is less room for subjective interpretation
of the basic tenets. The goal of Reconstructionism is to build a world of justice and compassion.
Overall, I found Judaism to be a fairly optimistic practice. There is no concept of
“original sin,” so people are looked at as inherently good. Many practicing Jews view the future
with a spirit of hope. Looking at Judaism as a whole, the range of practices among its people is
extreme. There are those who live lives completely devoted to formality and ritual, eschewing
secularism, and following strict behavioral guidelines, there are those who follow the spirit of
compassion elucidated in Hillel’s axiom without any of the formality or religious ardor, and
everything in between. As a religion, Judaism exhibits great diversity, and in some cases, great
flexibility.
Islam
Similar to Judaism, there is diversity to be found in Islam. Although some differences
exist in interpretation of the Qur’an (the Muslim holy book), those differences are mostly
polarized between the mainstream Muslims who comprise the majority of Islam, and the
fundamentalists who are a small (but active) minority. The main diversity is to be found in a
Muslim’s regard for the Sunnah, or life and example of the prophet (Muhammad). The Sunnah is
derived from the Hadith, a collection of sayings and anecdotes from Muhammad. While most
Muslims regard the Sunnah as a strict guide to the best way to live, some believe that if Allah
had wanted people to live a certain way, he would have revealed it in the Qur’an.
Unlike most Judaism, which is focused on improving life here on Earth, much of Islam
regards this life as a necessary evil. They view this existence as a trial based on submission and
repentance to a supreme being (Allah). In fact Islam literally means “submission.” There is no
such thing as secular Islam. It is very much a religion, and one based on absolute beliefs.
One absolute is their belief in Allah. Contrary to popular belief, Allah is not a name for
their Messiah. It is what they believe to be the proper name of God. They believe this Supreme
Being to be the same God worshipped by Christians and Jews.
Like Judaism, emphasis is placed on education, but for different reasons. Judaism seeks
to create a well-rounded person to contribute to the Jewish community and the secular world in
general. Islam emphasizes education for the glorification of Allah.
Although they hold themselves to strict standards, historically (and scripturally), Islam is
concerned with human rights. There are no compulsory conversions advocated by the Qur’an.
Privacy, freedom, dignity, and equality are guaranteed. Women are considered equal in some,
but not all respects. Many of the separations of men and women in Muslim countries are cultural“holdovers” from the region, not doctrine based mandates. It should be noted, however, that
human (and specifically women’s) rights often get pushed aside in Muslim countries. In many of
these cases, political agendas are combined with extremist interpretations of religious doctrine.
Like Judaism, Islam has religious principles that deal with the abstract ideas of worship,
and guidelines for living life in this world. For most, these principles are believed to be the direct
will of Allah. Enforcement of these codes is punitive in nature.
Religious practices are governed by the “Five Pillars.” They are:
1) Shahadah - A Muslim must declare her/his faith by reciting the Shahadah, revealing a
strong belief in God (Allah) as the creator and governor of the entire universe, and in
Muhammad (Allah’s messenger).
2) Salah - Prayer must be performed five times daily. These five times are dawn (Fajr),
immediately after noon (Dhuhr), mid-afternoon (‘Asr), sunset (Maghrib), and early night
(Isha’). One prepares for prayer by cleaning her/his self and the area for prayer. Friday
afternoon prayer must be done at a Mosque (Muslim place of worship).
3) Sawm – During the month of Ramadan, all able-bodied Muslims are compelled to fast
from sun-up to sundown. In addition to purifying the body, the fast is supposed to
develop discipline, and appreciation for the suffering of the poor and starving.
4) Zakah – All wealth is considered the property of Allah. There is a tax exacted on all kinds
of wealth that is distributed to the people according to Islamic law.
5) Hajj – Every Muslim is required to make a pilgrimage to Makkah in Saudi Arabia, once
in their life, as long as they are financially able. The Hajj is meant to be a final act of
repentance to Allah before judgment, and the reward is believed to be paradise. During
the Hajj, all class distinctions are stripped away, stones are cast at a stone pillar
representing Satan, and an animal is sacrificed at the end of the pilgrimage.
Din is a term used to denote faith in Islam. It does not change with time. The Shariah is
the detailed code of conduct for living the life of a Muslim. It is subject to amendment with
changing times and circumstances. It is divided into five categories: fard or wajih – things
that are compulsory, such as keeping the five pillars; haram – things that are forbidden, such
as committing adultery and eating pork; mandub or mustahab – actions which are
recommended, but not compulsory, such as making extra voluntary prayers; makruh –
actions which are not forbidden, but disapproved of, such as divorce; and mubah – actions to
be decided by conscience because there is no clear guidance on the subject.
While learned Muslim clerics are allowed to amend certain practices, there exists some
difference of opinion as to how binding and pervasive those changes are. The Sunni Muslims
believe that only the original caliphs (the prophet Muhammad’s companions) could make
binding decisions regarding Muslim behavior. The Shi’ite Muslims believe that certain living
religious scholars have equal right to interpret divine law as the original caliphs.
Every Muslim is expected to follow the guidelines elucidated above to the best of their
ability. When life circumstances, such as travel or sickness, make following these guidelines
impossible, exceptions are made without guilt or punishment, although laziness is not an
excuse to slack in one’s practice. The true measure of a Muslim’s “worthiness” is her/his
sincerity of devotion to Allah. One who truly devotes her/him self to Islam, but occasionally
misses a daily prayer, is looked upon more favorably than one who makes all the outward
gestures, but lacks sincerity. Therefore, to categorize a Muslim as “deeply religious’ or“average” based on actions alone, is missing the most important part of the picture. What
matters most is heart. Even showing up to Friday prayer (Friday is their holy day, and
Muslims gather at the Mosque for community prayer) a few minutes late, is a sign of waning
devotion. One might say that a person’s devotion, as manifested by their actions, is most
important. In general, the average person of Islam can be considered “deeply religious,”
whereas a person who lacks faith and devotion to the lifestyle (the Shariah) would be an
exception.
The next aspect of Islam that has to be addressed is that of Wahhabism. This sect of Islam
was founded by Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab in the early eighteenth century. Wahhab
believed that Islam had been corrupted by the Ottoman Empire, and needed to be brought
back to its “roots.” His brand of reform, however, is believed by mainstream Islam to be
much stricter than the original teachings. No celebration of any kind is permitted. No music
or decoration is allowed. Women are to have no autonomy at all.
The most disturbing part of the “Wahhabism” movement is the lack of tolerance for
people with differing beliefs. Muslims who don’t share the Wahhabism beliefs are to be
exterminated. People of other faiths are to be humiliated.
Wahhab developed a political and religious alliance with a local bandit named
Muhammad ibn Saud, and they set off to conquer any territory they could. Only their
descendents would be allowed to rule the conquered territory. The house of Saud (the ruling
party of Saudi Arabia today) is directly descendent from this alliance. Wahhabism is the
religion of the regime (although they don’t use that terminology). Modern Islamic
fundamentalism was born out of this movement. Although there is a well-ingrained caste
system in place, no distinctions are made in levels of religious devotion. Everyone who joins
this movement is expected to be completely devoted to the cause, and behavior that deviates
from their beliefs is not tolerated. Terrorism is considered a valid political tool by the
Wahhabists.
Christianity
The largest and most divergent religion of the world is Christianity. There are literally
hundreds of different sects of Christianity, although three main divisions (Catholicism,
Protestantism and Eastern Orthodox) account for most of the practicing Christians. When
speaking of Christian beliefs and levels of devotion, one must stick to generalizations. The
specifics of behavior, and even some of the basic tenets, can differ greatly from sect to sect,
although certain beliefs are fairly universal.
They believe there is one Supreme Being they call God. They believe that this God
created the world as distinct from him, but is active within it. They believe that humans are
created at a distance from God, and are responsible for their own lives. (God is judge of all
they do, but seeks to help them when they go wrong.) They believe that God reveals himself
in three persons: The Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. However, these
three persons are regarded as a unity, sharing one substance. They believe that Jesus died in
order to reconcile the human relationship with God and make it possible for humans to enter
Heaven (Paradise).
The basic Christian guidelines for living are based on what is believed to be the example
of the life of Jesus Christ. One should love God first and foremost. One should also love
fellow human beings as one loves oneself, and forgive those who have wronged you. The
most important tenet is to spread Christianity. At the end of this life (one’s only life
according to doctrine), one is judged by one’s deeds while alive. The worthy are rewarded
with eternity in Heaven. The bad are punished with eternity in Hell. Whether or not Heaven
and Hell literally exist is the subject of much debate among different sects of Christianity. Some people believe them to be Metaphors representing one’s closeness to God (Heaven
being equated with a closeness to God and Hell as a distance, with varying levels in
between).
The minimum requirement to be considered Christian is acceptance of the basic beliefs
stated above. For many people who call themselves Christian, that is where their devotion
ends. Most people, who live in nations with large secular influences, fall into a different
category. These people attend services on Sunday (usually an hour long “Mass” consisting of
sermons on the New Testament [the Christian holy book] and life lessons based on
scriptures), and on holidays (such as Christmas). They recite silent prayers on a daily, or at
least regular basis. These people will usually go through the various rights of passage, such
as Baptism (a “purification” ritual for a newborn), and Confirmation (a “coming of age”
ceremony). Most of these people will choose a wedding in a Christian church, by a Christian
priest. Some in this category might also attend Sunday school (for learning Christian
theology) as a child. In countries with less secular influence (like many in South America),
and to a lesser degree in more secularized cultures, practitioners may add daily prayer group
and Bible study meetings (Bible study might also be done in private), fund raisers for church
charities, and weekly or monthly gatherings of special interest groups within the church
(men’s or women’s group, or fund raising committees, etc.). Some may even get involved in
the business of running the church (i.e., as church treasurer, or proctor).
Generally speaking, Christian doctrine doesn’t have much regard for practical solutions
to the world’s problems. It professes that the world is in conflict with God and the only
solution to the plight of the world is for people to convert to Christianity and ask for
forgiveness. There is also the concept of original sin, which professes that the sin of Adam
and Eve (whom they believe are the progenitors of the entire human race, and who turned
their backs on God) has been passed down to all of humanity. Therefore, we are all born
guilty of impurity and corruption. Nothing we do is untainted by selfish desire. Only hrough
conversion and repentance, can we be regenerated and welcomed into God’s grace. Humans
are considered addicted to sin, but with faith in God, they can be “healed” of their addiction.
Only through God can we do acts of good.
Perhaps the most important concept of Christianity is that of sacrifice. Christian doctrine
indicates that to heal a relationship, there must be a sacrifice on the part of the one who has
done wrong. Christians believe that Jesus made just such a sacrifice (his life) in order to heal
the human relationship with God. This sacrifice also serves as an example for how to lead a
Christian life, and how to approach human relationships with God and each other. Even your
vocation is an opportunity for sacrifice. Christian doctrine teaches that God has chosen every
aspect of your life for you. If you sacrifice and follow this “calling,” you will be rewarded.
The last point I will make is about the role of the church. Since Christians believe that God does not heal people in isolation, membership in a church is considered compulsory. Many small sects (as well as individuals) reject this assertion, preferring to view their relationship with God as personal. Even Mother Theresa was often at odds with Church authority. She chose to see God in the poor, and desperate, rather than in the walls of a particular building. Mainstream Christianity, however, advocates the strong presence of the church and religious authorities in the lives of Christians.
Ancestor Worship
Ancestor worship occurs in many primitive cultures throughout the world. It also plays a
role in many modern religions, although to varying degrees. The basic belief is that the dead
live on and play a role in the lives of later generations. They communicate with us through
dreams and possession. They can assert their influence in a positive or negative way in the
form of blessings or curses. People can enjoy good health or infirmity depending on the state
of their relationship with their ancestors. Worship of ancestors, therefore, can be inspired by
respect and fear, although some forms of ancestor worship only view ancestors as protective
forces.
Ancestor worship has its roots in ancient China, Egypt, and Africa. In Egypt, the dead
were buried in elaborate graves with ritual offerings. To not do so, they believed, would
cause that person to die a second death, a very undesirable outcome. Ancient Romans made
offerings at the graves of the deceased to placate their spirits (Manes). In Western Africa,
where ancestor worship is still practiced within many tribes (such as the Bantu and Shona),
the tribes’ people treat ancestors as moral “arbiters.” They are also regarded as
“intermediaries” between the living and the divine powers. Some believe that ancestors
reincarnate in their descendents. Ancestor worship was also common in Japan until 1945
when the Emperor outlawed it claiming himself to be the only living divinity, and the moral
barometer of the country. Some remnants of the old traditions of Japan still exist, but mainly
in the form of expatriated Japanese citizens.
A modern ancestor worshiper likely performs daily prayers to their ancestors, asking for protection, and wishing them well in the afterlife. At different times they might make offerings of different types, or present gifts to their ancestors as a way to show respect and invite blessings. The average person usually adheres to these practices. I say average in a very generic sense because as mentioned earlier, ancestor worship is a part of many religions. Many Native American religions have a heavy component of ancestor worship in them. Some sects of modern Shinto (specifically the Kami sects) are significantly influenced by ancestor worship. Even modern Buddhism and Christianity have rituals designed to pay respects to or alleviate the suffering of deceased relatives or friends.
A more dedicated practitioner would be involved in daily meditation (designed for
serious introspection and increasing perceptibility of guidance from the deceased), monthly
gatherings of fellow practitioners, bi-annual gatherings at temples or sacred halls, and
periodic ceremonies to connect with dead ancestors in various ways.
One such ceremony is the Obon ceremony in the religion of Seichonoie. For three days
(August 15-17) it is believed that ancestors return to this world for a sort of reunion with
their descendents. During the three days, the worshiper participates in intensive prayer,
celebration, and feasting. At the end of the three days, they participate in the Sholonagas
ceremony, where a small boat is floated across a body of water bearing a candle. With that
ceremony, the spirit returns to the “other side.” Other ceremonies are performed on
Anniversaries of a person’s death, on New Year’s Day (in certain cultures), and on other
occasions particular to that culture (like the Chinese custom of Qingming jie [Grave
Sweeping Day]). Some people may try to connect with ancestors at other times through a
medium or oracle of some kind.
In modern times, ancestor worship usually has no priesthood or living intermediaries. Proselytizing is not part of most peoples practice. It is mostly practiced in the home (except for the occasional gatherings mentioned above) and is born out of a profound respect (and in some cases fear) of one’s elders. In many of the Asian traditions, men are given a more important role in the household, and also a greater status after death. This fact stems more from Asian culture than from a commonality in ancestor worship belief systems.
Earth Based Religions
Earth based religions are religions that view the Earth (and nature as a whole) as the root
of universal consciousness and energy. There are two main concepts common to most forms
of Earth based religion. They are interconnectedness and blessedness. Earth cultures believe
that all parts of the Universe, both animate and inanimate, are connected at levels that are
deeper than the boundaries of space/time as we know it. Because of this interconnectedness,
many feel that we interact with the universe as co-creators. Earth based religious practitioners
such as Pagans believe that the universe is intelligent on every level down to the smallest
particle. They accept quantum theory as an intellectual foundation for their beliefs, as well as
a platform from which to relate to people outside their belief system. They feel they can
understand by intuition and perhaps even access the universal intelligence and energy
through rituals involving magick (their spelling), meditation, dance, singing, ecstatic sex,
herbology, gardening, massage, and shamanic journeys among others.
Proponents of Earth based religions believe that the entire universe, including its many
beings, is blessed. They believe that human beings are born with all the tools to live a
spiritual and ethical life, and are naturally inclined to pursue a life of growth and
development. Their beliefs are not based around “saving” humans from their own corrupt
nature. There is no supernatural punishment for supposed flaws (such as ego, or desire).
Earth based religions, like other religions, are based around the basic questions such as
what is the meaning of life, what happens after death, is there a god or gods, what is our basic
nature, and how do we interact with the universe. Like ancestor worshipers, Earth based
religious practitioners do not proselytize. People are not compelled to join any movement. They celebrate holidays that are usually centered on the changes of seasons, and lunar or
solar cycles. There is an emphasis on experience instead of abstract beliefs. Interaction with
the world is of primary importance. Differences in levels of practice and devotion are well
tolerated, as are other belief systems. Organizational structure is open and flexible; there is
no central hierarchy or structure. Some groups focus on specific ethnic cultures, such as
Asatru, African, or Celtic traditions. Others pull together different traditions into what are
known as eclectic or blended paths. Personal responsibility is emphasized in Earth based
religions. One’s practice might focus on different types of meditation to build the “Mental
muscles” to be able to decide ethical and moral issues for oneself. Some traditions offer
established moral guidelines, but encourage members to develop their own sense of the
validity of those guidelines.
The devoted Pagan (the focus of my study of Earth based religions – as represented by
the organization Wicca) participates in many cyclical and devotional ceremonies and rituals.
There are daily prayers and meditations, Aural cleansing, full (Esbat) and new moon
ceremonies, and holidays honoring the eight Sabbats. The eight Sabbats are based on the
Pagan “Wheel of the year.” The Sabbats are days that correspond to seasonal changes (such
as the winter or summer solstices) and solar cycles. Each time of the year corresponds to a
different human trait (i.e., winter=sadness). Prayers and meditation are used to understand the
nature of these emotions and learn a spiritual lesson. A dedicated Pagan is likely to be a
vegan, eschewing animal products of any kind. They are likely to try to follow what are
called the thirteen virtues (tolerance, charity, humility, devotion, patience, kindliness,
forbearance, sincerity, courage, precision, efficiency, discrimination [as in discriminating
between right and wrong actions], and wisdom). They might attend ceremonies similar to
baptisms (such as the Wiccan “Wiccaning”). This baptism is a symbolic acknowledgement,
not a spiritual cleansing. A pagan wedding is called “handfasting.” It is not a legal marriage,
but many Pagans will combine this ceremony with a civil service in order to fulfill a
symbolic unity with their mate. “Crossing overs” are Pagan funeral services.
Some Pagans are lackadaisical in their beliefs. As is other religions, they might pray or
meditate occasionally, and attend an occasional ceremony. Most Pagans are in the middle.
They pray or meditate daily. They attend seasonal ceremonies (such as the eight Sabbats),
and might choose a Pagan wedding and/or funeral. Most Pagans attempt to follow and
understand the thirteen Pagan ethical virtues. The application of these virtues is a personal
matter, but once again, the Pagan view is that all people naturally aspire to display these
qualities for a sense of personal growth, not out of fear of punishment.
Native American Religions
The study of Native American religion is fraught with complexity and cultural dilution.
There exists no common belief system between all 250 Native American groups left in the
Americas. After 300-400 years of cultural erosion and forced Christian conversions, little is
left of true Native American cultures and religions. Anthropologists have divided the
remaining groups into seven distinct regions. They are: Eastern Woodlands, Southeastern,
Plains, Plateau, Great Basin, Southwestern, and Northwest Coastal. I will be focusing on the
Lakota (literally – “considered friends”), a subdivision of the Sioux. The other two divisions
are the Dakota, and the Nakota.
There are some among the Lakota who believe that any intrusion into their culture by outsiders represents a weakening of their culture. The majority of Lakota, however, believe that spirituality is for everyone, and all should have access to it. The first thing one should realize about the religion that the Lakota practice is that it’s not a religion at all. When the first European settlers encountered the Lakota, they had trouble communicating with them in matters of spirituality, because the Lakota do not separate spirituality and life in any way, and therefore had no word for religion. Their religion is expressed completely in their culture and daily life. It is more of a way of looking at life than a religion.
The basic mythology of the creation of the Lakota culture surrounds a story called “White
Buffalo Calf Woman.” In short, two men were walking in the forest when they came across a
white buffalo. A white buffalo is an anomaly so they stopped to investigate. The buffalo then
turned into a beautiful woman. One of the men lusted after the woman and instantly died.
The other man respected her, and brought her back to his people. They approached through
the east gate. She imparted great knowledge and wisdom to them, as well as the ceremonies
they still practice today. They believe that she will someday return through the east gate, so
every village or community places significance on the east gate (or equivalent) of their
territory.
While stories and history are important to the Lakota, the most important tenet they
follow is that all things, both animate and inanimate, are connected. They call the concept
Mitakuye Oyasin (we’re all related). They believe that spirits inhabit everything. Because of
that connectedness, most Lakota strive to respect everyone and everything without prejudice.
There are formal times to pray among the Lakota, but in general, all language is a prayer.
All language, and all action, in fact, is part of their effort to connect with other spirits and
through them, the creator. They call the creator Wakan Tanka. They also have a sort of
“messiah” figure called Tumkashala, which translates into grandfather. They believe that
Tumkashala once visited their people to give instructions on how to live. Lakota orient their
existence around Wakan Tanka, Mother Earth, and the four directions (north, south, east, and
west). The four directions all have different associated qualities (fear, compassion, anger,
etc). Each of those six entities has a spirit (Wakan Tanka being the “Great” spirit). Each spirit
has an associated color. Wakan Tanka is blue, Mother Earth is green, north is red, south is
white, east is yellow, and west is black. When Lakota want to make a specific prayer, for
guidance on a specific problem they are facing, they make “prayer ties.” Prayer ties are made
with colored cloth (to match the color of the spirit corresponding to one of the four
directions, Mother Earth or Wakan Tanka). They are filled with tobacco and tied into small
packets. These “ties” are then used in various ceremonies and rituals to bring the prayers to
the spirits. Tobacco is one of four sacred herbs. It plays a major role in daily rituals and
special ceremonies. It is the medium that is supposed to actually carry the prayers to the
spirits designated by the color of the cloth used for the prayer tie. The other herbs are sage
(gets rid of negative spirits/obstacles), cedar (purges the bad, and brings in the good), and
sweet grass (brings in the good).
Another way tobacco is used is in a pipe. To a Lakota, the pipe is the most important
belonging. It consists of a bowl, representing female, and a stem, representing male.
Together, they represent unity and completeness. The pipe is made of pipestone, which is
sacred to them. As with the prayer ties, the tobacco is used to bring prayers to the creator.
However, smoking the pipe is more of an every day activity, whereas the prayer ties are used
only for special prayers and ceremonies. Carrying a pipe is a sign of a deep commitment to
the Lakota way of life. The Lakota regard their pipes much the way Christians regard the
Bible.
The devoted Lakota offers daily prayers over her/his pipe. Every day is an attempt to
manifest one’s beliefs. She/he attempts to walk what is called the “North/south path” or the “red road.” Lakota believe that this path is the moral path. They try to incorporate all the
concepts discussed so far into action on a daily basis. When they stumble, they ask the
creator for guidance through prayer and ceremony. Whatever guidance they feel they
received is then applied to their life. Less devoted Lakota, however, fluctuate in their
devotion to the lifestyle and principles of the Lakota culture. Constant self-reflection is a
major tenet of their belief system, but is an arduous process that some are not willing to
devote themselves to.
The average Lakota, while perhaps not applying all the principles to her/his life, will
attend most or all of the “Seven Rites of the Lakota.” Those rites are: Nagi Gluhapi (Keeping
of the Soul), Inipi (rite of purification, or sweat lodge ritual), Hanblocheyapi (Crying for a
Vision, or Vision Quest), Wiwanyag Wachipi (The Sun Dance), Hunkapi (Making of
relatives), Ishna Ta Awi Cha Lowen (Preparing a Girl for Womanhood), and Tapa Wanka
Yap (Throwing of the Ball). Of these rites, the most important are the Sweat lodge ritual, the
Sun Dance, and the Vision Quest.
The Sun Dance is performed once per year. For three days Lakota dance around a chosen tree. The tree is prepared with prayer ties from those participating in the ceremony. No food or drink is allowed (although that custom has been relaxed somewhat in recent years). Those who are willing have their skin pierced. They are then fastened to the tree by piercing instruments. They remain on the tree while the tribe’s people dance around them. When they are ready, they rip their bodies off the tree, tearing the flesh where it was fastened. It symbolizes sacrifice to the creator. They feel that the only thing they have, of value, to offer is their flesh.
The sweat lodge ritual is usually done before the Sun Dance. It consists of staying inside
a small enclosure with hot rocks. Water is poured over the rocks to create steam. The heat is
very intense, and acts as a “purifying” agent. Some people continue to do this, periodically,
throughout the Sun Dance ritual.
The vision quest is a rite that all men go through at least once in their lives. The Lakota
man who chooses to go on Vision Quest prepares 600 prayer ties in advance, climbs up a
mountain alone, strips naked and lies down. The prayer ties are around him in a circle. A flag
with an eagle feather is placed in the center. He then waits (for up to 4 days) to get a vision.
That vision can be in the form of an animal (each animal, it is believed, has a different spirit,
and a different message from the creator), or a sudden insight. The purpose of the ritual is to
get guidance from the creator as to the proper direction to take in life.
The general attitude of the Lakota toward the sexes is a somewhat egalitarian one.
Women and men both have important roles in their society. Women are respected, but like
many other culture, the roles are separated to a certain degree. Men do the hunting while
women process the prey into food and goods. Some rituals are meant for only women, some
rituals are meant for only men. Some rituals are meant for both men and women.
Traditionally, men have carried out the role of warrior, while women have carried out the
role of homemaker. These roles have changed somewhat recently, as the need for warriors (in
the combat sense) is less than it used to be. Most Lakota (female and male alike) are more
concerned with the survival of their culture and people. Many tribes’ women and men now
spend their time trying to advance education and industry for their people while maintaining
a sense of culture and history.
Commonalities and Their Benefits
On the surface, it may not seem that the six religions discussed have much in common.
Four of these belief systems define existence through the concept of one, all-powerful, deity. The
other two (Ancestor worship and Earth based religion) have multiple, and sometimes no deities.
Wicca (the Earth based religion I studied) preaches that people are inherently good. Christianity
preaches that people are inherently bad, and need to be saved. The other religions fall somewhere
in the middle. All of these particular religions (except the more secular sects of Wicca) preach
that there is an afterlife of some kind, although their concept of that afterlife can differ somewhat
from each other. Each religion has its own particular ceremonies and rituals designed to bring its
practitioners closer to a state of “spirituality,” however they define it. Each one bears the marks
of the particular society or societies where they evolved. Ancestor worship developed in cultures
where elders were very respected. Christianity and Islam developed during unstable times in
regions perpetually at war, so death and the afterlife are recurrent themes. Earth based religions
developed in cultures that relied heavily on the land for survival. Native Americans also relied on
the land and on the creatures of the land, so they developed great respect for all life, animate and
inanimate. Judaism has a long and varied history and is rooted firmly in that history. When
looked at on these levels, it would seem there are more differences than similarities among these
belief systems. There is one overriding concept, however, that seems to have developed
universally, and in most cases, independently, and that is the concept of ethics.
The Golden Rule
All six of these religions, and in fact, all religions I have encountered or studied have a
fundamental principle regarding the treatment of others. That principle is represented and applied
in different ways from religion to religion, and culture to culture, but it is basically the same.
That principle can be plainly stated: “Do not harm others.” In Christianity and Judaism the
concept is expressed “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you,” or “What is hateful
to you, do not do to your fellow man.” In Islam it is said “Not one of you is a believer until he
desires for his brother what he desires for himself” (40 Hadithof an-Nawawi 13, Islam). In
Wicca it is a little more open ended: “Do what you will, but harm none.” In Lakota, it is implicit
in the language and culture. In ancestor worship religions, it is inferred through the idea of
respecting others. Though this principle often gets cast aside in the name of proselytizing and
politics, it is basic to all schools of ethical behavior, both religious and secular. It is often when
religion becomes institutionalized that other principles take precedence over this basic tenet. Most modern day Christians are appalled to learn of the forced conversions of African tribes’
people or Native Americans in the name of “God’s love.” Modern day Jews certainly would not
be proud of the persecution exacted upon early Christians on the grounds of blasphemy. Most
Muslims are ashamed that fundamentalists kill innocent people in the name of Islam. Examples
such as these are abundant throughout history, and even in modern times.
The idea of not harming others has become a basic tenet of most societies. It has formed
the foundation of many legal systems, and the accepted mores in many cultures. Although not
entirely religious in origin, religion has promoted this value in the societies it has influenced.
Even most religious organizations have taken a clear stance against harming others. They believe
that all life is sacred and that humans should aspire to respect and revere that life. Whatever the
motive, the result for most people is a respect for others’ basic right to live. The form this respect
takes varies from person to person, from culture to culture. I have encountered many people who
do not harm others simply because they fear retribution from one deity or another (punitive
ethics). Some of these people have stated that they would commit all sorts of assaults on others
for motives, ranging from revenge to sexual gratification, if they thought they could get away
with it. In this regard, religion acts as sort of a “checks and balances” system for maintaining
some sort of civility in society. To their credit, many other people arrive at their benevolent
nature though compassion, which they foster through their religious practice. Though more
common in eastern religions such as Buddhism, the concept of compassion has become more
popular in other cultures recently. Contrary to the idea of “Love thy neighbor,” compassion is
basically represented by the metaphor “walk a mile in the other person’s shoes.” With the idea of
basing oneself on compassion, one does not have to love, or even like another person, but simply
try to understand their perspective, and empathize with their pain and suffering. Those who act
out of compassion do not harm others because they do not desire to see anyone suffer. In modern
times, most religions try to instill this concept in their followers.
Humility
Humility is another universal virtue in religious practices. In monotheistic religions,
humility is a sign of respect for God and a belief that all the benefits of this world come from
him. In Earth based and some Native American beliefs, humility is based on the idea that we are
all connected, and inherently useful. Everyone has their role and is vital to society. It is one of
the 13 virtues of Wicca. In Lakota cultures, the Rabbit (one of the sacred power animals)
represents humility. Humility is sometimes based on the assumption that humans are small and
fairly insignificant in the scope of the entire cosmos. Some people feel however, that that
assertion is unnecessarily degrading to human beings, and can ultimately lead to the devaluation
of human life, both one’s own and others. Those who practice humility add value to society by
increasing its democratic nature. In one sense, humility can be considered a respect for other
people’s views, or at least their right to have those views. When people approach society,
business, and politics from this perspective, all efforts are more fruitful. Problems are solved
more easily when different views are considered. Grievances are resolved more readily when
everyone feels their perspective is being considered and respected. Creativity is enhanced when
different approaches are allowed. People are less likely to feel oppressed or invisible. This virtue
is the very nature of Democracy.
The opposite of humility is ego. When ego is the prevailing sentiment in societal
structure, cooperation breaks down, as everyone feels that her or his way is best, and
compromise is unnecessary. Ego and power are a dangerous combination often leading to human
rights violations and autocratic societal structures. Though a slight oversimplification of the
issue, one could say that Saddam Hussein’s Iraq was an example of a government run with a
complete lack of humility. Hussein’s lack of regard for his people was evident in all aspects of
his rule. Rather than compromise with those who had differing views, he had those people
removed by any means necessary. His way was the only way. His respect for and humility
among his people were non-existent. This attitude, unfortunately, is common among leaders in
the Middle East region. It is not the attitude of the majority of citizens, however, who base their
lives on the humility taught in their particular creed of Islam. It is the lack of humility on their
leaders part that has many people at odds with their governments. Reformist movements, based
on the idea that authoritarian leaders lack humility in the face of God, are under way in many
Middle Eastern nations, such as Iran, and Saudi Arabia. Though Islam does not specifically
preach Democracy, the teaching of humility, combined with the influence of secular economic
concerns, are slowly enabling the spread of some Democratic ideals in the region.
Respect
Respect has been touched upon in relation to other virtues (humility, compassion), but on
its own comprises an important part of most religious doctrines. In the Ancestor worshiping
cultures in parts of Asia, Africa, and Australia respect for dead ancestors is highly emphasized.
As mentioned before, that respect extends to their elders (parents, grandparents, etc.) Most
religions preach respect for parents. All versions of The Ten Commandments (Judaism, and
Christianity) have sections or specific rules regarding showing honor and respect to one’s
parents. In fact, respect for parents is fairly universal in religions throughout the world. The
monotheistic religions extend that respect to clergy, and all six religions extend it to teachers,
and in a general sense, all people. Through the teaching of respect, religion reinforces societal
structure. Our relationships with our parents, our neighbors, our teachers, our peers, and our
government are all affected by our concepts of respect. Respect teaches us to appreciate those
around us, and contributes to our ability to function in a structured way, as well as our ability to
live with others in harmony. If people respect each other, they are less likely to try to impose
their will on each other. They are more likely, therefore, to obey laws and government authority.
Many people get their concept of respect from religion.
There is a flipside to respect, however. Some religious schools and individuals can teach
respect for authority that exceeds what most would consider reasonable. Such “blind” respect can
cause one to overlook excesses of authority. Can a child really be expected to respect an abusive
parent? Should governmental authority be treated with respect if it does not return that respect to
the people? Do you respect a superior at work if that person is corrupt or incompetent? We have
recently seen the dark side of authoritarian concepts of respect in the sexual abuse scandal of the
Catholic Church. Many children did not report abuse for years because they were taught that
priests were so worthy of respect, that many felt they were infallible or beyond reproach. I
personally know many Catholics who were horrified to discover that their children considered
priests to be higher authorities than their parents. Of course in reality, it is the abusive priest who
failed to show respect, but institutions tend to preserve themselves, so the idea of respecting
authority is often used to conceal malfeasance. Suffice it to say, the average person views the
concept of respect with moderation and reason. Respect has to extend to everyone, and it should
be mutual. It is worth mentioning that some religions have a spotty record when it comes to
showing respect to women and minorities. The Bible (especially the old testament) is replete
with characterizations of women as evil temptresses or deceivers. It also justifies poor treatment
and even enslavement of women and foreigners. Partly through internal reformation, and partly
through external pressure from civil rights and women’s groups, the prevailing thinking has
changed to a great degree. While not completely egalitarian, most religions now teach basic
respect of all people.
Happiness
Every religion has a concept of what constitutes happiness. The monotheistic religions
define happiness in a general way as closeness to God, and more specifically as the revelation
that all is not as it seems. Although life may not seem fair or easy, there is a bigger picture that
we don’t see because of our limited perspective. Wicca, and other Earth based religions don’t try
to define happiness for everyone, but if there is a commonality to their perception of happiness, it
might be related to a harmony with nature. Happiness as represented by the power animal
hummingbird, in Native American religions might be achieved through selflessness (and to a
degree in all religions). Ancestor worshippers might achieve happiness from the belief that they
have successfully helped to send their deceased loved ones over to “the other side.” The way this
concept benefits society is by providing hope that happiness is possible. When people lose hope
for a happy life, they stop placing value on that life. Life becomes an endless austerity, to be
endured rather than celebrated. People with no sense of value of their lives or the lives of others
are more likely to disrupt society, shirk their responsibilities, and harm others. Of course,
religion as abstract theory cannot alone offer hope for all. Faith without action is just empty
dogma. Opinions differ widely on what, if anything constitutes appropriate action for people to
take towards their happiness and the betterment of the world. Some believe that prayer alone is
the road to happiness. This idea is the basis of most Muslim communities. It used to be
commonplace in Christianity and Judaism as well, but secular influences have given most people
a more practical outlook. Whatever their theoretical outlook, most people need to see some fruit
from their efforts. In order for prayer alone to offer hope, it must produce results. If it does not,
then continuous bad circumstances can lead to despair. I believe that hopelessness is the root of
much of the violence and chaos in the world. That is not to excuse, in any way, violent or
disruptive behavior, but just to understand it. None of the six religions I studied completely deal
with these realities. Some of them are just too focused on ritual, dogma, and other plains of
existence, but all of them seem to be moving in a more pragmatic direction, and attempting to
address the real world concerns of their followers. In this sense, they have an opportunity to offer
real hope and real happiness to people.
Honesty
All six religions value honesty as a high ethical virtue. It is among the commandments of
Judaism and Christianity. In the Jewish Talmud (Shabbat 31a) it is said, “When a person appears
before the throne of judgment, the first question he is asked is not, ‘Have you believed in God?’
or ‘Have you prayed or performed ritual acts,’ but ‘have you dealt honorably, faithfully in all
your dealings with your fellowmen?’” In the Christian Bible (New Testament), Paul explains in a
letter to the Ephesians (425): “Wherefore putting away lying, speak every man truth with his
neighbor: for we are members one of another.” In the Qur’an of Islam (16.92) it states, “Fulfill
the covenant of God once you have pledged it, and do not break any oaths once they have been
sworn to. You have set up God as a guarantee for yourselves; God knows everything you are
doing.” In Shinto, a religion heavily invested in ancestor worship, they believe that lying brings
about severe divine punishment. Native American religions teach honesty as part of the
North/South path, or the “moral” life. Wiccans believe that honesty is part of being a good
person. It is the key component of sincerity, another of their 13 virtues. Honesty is among the most useful of qualities to modern societies. Although it is frequently necessary to enforce
honesty in a punitive way, all societal interactions require a level of honesty. Business could not
function without it, as transactions would be fraught with mistrust and uncertainty. We have
recently seen how dishonesty among senior executives (coupled with greed) can hurt people. In
the corporations of Enron and WorldCom (as well as others), dishonest business practices cost
thousands of people their livelihood and security. Further lies were used to try to cover up the
crimes, at continued cost to employees and society in general. (Tax dollars are used to investigate and police these companies.) Without honesty, conflict resolution is impossible.
Whether we are talking about a personal relationship, or dealings between nations, honesty is
essential. Honesty creates trust, and only with trust can forward progress be made. Lack of trust
creates suspicion and eventually leads to narcissistic tendencies, as people feel the need to“protect” themselves from the threat they feel is being hidden from them. Regarding the issue of
honesty, most religions get unqualified high marks. They even acknowledge the occasional need
to lie to protect someone’s feelings or even their life. If you were hiding Jews from the Nazis in
World War II, and Nazis came to your door asking if you were hiding Jews, you bviously
should lie to protect them.
Right Speech
Honesty is not the only virtue with regard to speech. Most religions discourage or
prohibit slander and gossip as well. “Thou shalt not bear false witness” is one of the
Commandments of Christianity and Judaism. Native American religions, as well as Wicca, and
Ancestor worship all view slander and gossip as hurtful to others, and therefore against righteous
behavior. Islam considers them an affront to Allah. Slander and gossip are a form of assault on a
person in a very real sense, especially in the modern world. They can have a very negative affect
on a person’s professional and social status. People usually slander and gossip because they have
low self-esteem. By putting someone else down, one elevates her or his own status by
comparison. By discouraging this sort of behavior, religious teachings help people to look at
themselves more honestly, and confront negative tendencies. Self-reflection is necessary for
growth. People who are able to be self-critical are less likely to function from ego because they
can recognize their own faults and shortcomings. They are more likely to contribute to their
communities rather than only take from them greedily. They are more likely to live an altruistic
life because they recognize the value and contribution of others instead of designating them“inferior.”
Patience, diligence, and perseverance
Patience, diligence, and perseverance are often spoken of together in religious circles, as
qualities necessary to reap the rewards of a religious life. They are also virtues that are necessary
in order to achieve anything significant in secular life. Advancing in education, business, and
personal growth require great patience, diligence and perseverance. These qualities are also vital
to any effort directed at resolving conflicts whether those conflicts are on a governmental,
corporate, or private level. Those lacking these qualities, often exploit others (and sometimes
natural resources) in order to make a quick profit or fulfill some other need for instant
gratification. The temptation of a quick buck, or an easy score (of some kind) is enough to lure
some people to overlook the harm their actions might cause. Patience is another of the13
Wiccan virtues. The Lakota use the lion to represent these qualities. The lion is a respected
feminine spirit. The female lion is a powerful protector of her cubs, but also a patient and
diligent nurturer. Christians teach patience and diligence through the idea that Jesus will return
one day to finish his work: “And we desire that each one of you may show the same diligence
unto the fullness of hope even to the end: that ye be not sluggish, but imitators of them who
through faith and patience inherit the promises” (Hebrews 6:11-12). Jewish tradition teaches
patience through the example of Job who refused to curse God despite his sufferings. Islam
teaches patience and trust in Allah in the face of obstacles. From the Qur’an: “So be patient;
surely the promise of Allah is true” (40.55). Religion offers one of the primary reinforcements of
the concepts of patience, diligence, and perseverance in society.
Gratitude
Gratitude is a universal concept in all religions and schools of ethics. Whereas some
eastern religions teach their proponents to be grateful to their own lives for the benefits they
receive, monotheistic religions teach gratitude to God for all. The idea of gratitude is pervasive
in most civilized societies. We say “thank you” when someone does us a favor, or serves us at a
restaurant. We are grateful to our parents and teachers for the roles they played in shaping our
character. Some people are even grateful for a warm, sunny day. Showing gratitude gives us a
sense of appreciation for the positive influences we have in our lives. If we learn to be
appreciative of our good fortune, it is less likely that we will develop a sense of entitlement that
so often leads to greed. The one flaw in gratitude is that it can easily lead to a false humility that
can manifest as self-deprecation. In order to be productive in society, not only must we value the
lives of others, we must value our own lives. To look outside ourselves too often, is to not realize
the potential we have within ourselves. We, then, do not contribute to society to the fullest of our
ability. We develop a defeatist attitude. We must be self reliant as well as cooperative in order to
not be a drain on society. We should be grateful to ourselves for our better qualities, and
constantly striving to improve ourselves at the same time. So, while gratitude, as taught by these
six and other religions is an important and beneficial character trait, to be the most beneficial, it
must be applied internally as well as externally.
Purity
This last point leads into another very important concept, and that is the concept of
purity. Without belaboring the point, suffice it to say, most religions have strong prohibitions
against any abuses of our bodies. Some religions, like Islam, and to a lesser extent Christianity
and Judaism, claim that the body belongs to Allah (God) and must be treated accordingly. Native
American rituals focus on purifying the body in order to reach a higher state of spirituality so
you may be more receptive to the creator’s message. The benefits of a pure body are numerous:
Increased longevity, greater concentration, and greater productivity among others. People who
are healthy are less of a drain on the system, as they don’t require as much medical care. This
point is not to condemn people who genuinely need medical help, but many people don’t take
care of themselves, and then rely on doctors and other medical professionals to “fix” them when
they are ill. This practice raises insurance costs for everyone and often drains publicly funded
medical facilities. Abuses of drugs and alcohol are rampant in society. These types of abuses are
obviously disruptive, especially to those who are close to the abuser. In worst-case scenarios,
those who abuse themselves are likely to abuse others. So while the idea of purity has numerous
benefits if applied, it is often not applied. The reason, most likely, is that it is not usually rooted
in a deep self-respect. People are taught to purify their lives out of obedience, and this approach
works in a more controlled environment (like many Middle Eastern and other less secular
countries). In an open society however, where alcohol, drugs, and fattening foods are readily
available, obedience is less likely to be a motivation for avoiding abuses. Even some very
Orthodox sects of certain religions, which have managed to virtually isolate themselves from
mainstream society, have rampant abuses of alcohol and drugs. Many people don’t feel
connected to the abstract concepts of religious purity, even the most devout. People need a real
sense of the value of and gratitude towards their own lives. When rooted in this fundamental
self-respect, purity is no longer abstract, but a manifestation of that respect, and that respect
extends out into your environment.
The next group of ethical virtues might best be described as public virtues. Public virtues
can be thought of as manifestations of personal virtues.
Charity
The first of these virtues discussed will be charity. Charity is a common concept among
religions including the six discussed here. The motivation behind that charity and its effects vary
from belief system to belief system, but the basic concept is the same; be generous and share
your wealth with the less fortunate. Charity works best when it is a temporary measure to help
people through a tough time. If charity is approached as a long-term solution, it becomes a sort
of welfare system. The worst manifestation of this possibility is when one person or group
becomes so dependent on another person or group that a sort of “Lord/Vassal” relationship is
established where one is considered beneath the other. The “giver” in this case gets to enjoy the
praise of the community, while the “receiver” suffers low self-esteem, being unable to provide
for self or family. Most religions acknowledge the undesirability of this scenario. In Judaism, the
famous rabbinical philosopher Maimonides (mentioned earlier in the section on Judaism by the
name Rambam) describes different levels of charity from lowest to highest. The lowest level is
“To give grudgingly.” The highest level is “To help a person become self-sufficient so that she
or he will not need to accept charity in the future.” Christianity considers charity a
transformation for both giver and receiver. The giver develops greater understanding of sacrifice,
as demonstrated by Jesus. The receiver is given a new opportunity in life and faith (by their
willingness to show gratitude to God). Charity is represented by one of the Five Pillars of Islam
as being central to a Muslim’s practice. As mentioned earlier, Muslims believe that everything
belongs to Allah, and therefore sacrificing possessions for the sake of the people is just giving
them back to Allah (their rightful owner). They also believe that nothing should be hoarded.
Society works best when material goods flow naturally to benefit the most people possible. In
many ways, this approach can be considered a sort of religious socialism. Wicca and other Earth
based religions do not mandate charity, but emphasize charity as a personal expression of a
desire to help others. It is one of the thirteen virtues. Ancestor worshippers’ views on charity
vary from culture to culture, but in general charity is another form of respect for those around us
and it honors our ancestors. In Native American religions charity might not be in the form of
money, but of actions to help others. These actions are part of what they consider “selfless
devotion to the people,” and are a central ideal for the Lakota and other tribes.
One of the most inconspicuous benefits of charity is the sense of community it develops.
It connects people with the problems of others whom they might normally not encounter. It helps
to build appreciation in the lives of those who are more fortunate, and when applied properly,
humility as well. The promotion of charity can help to fight the influence of greed and
exploitation. At its best it helps to create more equality. A spirit of charity can galvanize people
for a cause such as disaster relief. The outpouring of support for the victims of September 11th
was immense. People of all walks of life sacrificed money, time and effort to help others they
may have never met and whose gratitude they may never receive.
Repentance and forgiveness
There are many different concepts regarding how to reconcile harmful behavior. The
concepts of repentance and forgiveness are common to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Islam
and Judaism a person is required to seek face-to-face reconciliation with those she or he has
wronged. In Catholic Christianity a priest can offer absolution without the offender having to
face the person or people that she or he offended. In Lakota cultures, a person seeks purification
through any number of rituals such as the sweat lodge ritual. They endeavor to correct their
behavior in the future. Ancestor worshippers will seek to purify themselves through prayer.
Wiccans do not have a concept of sin, but behavior that hurts is discouraged. They seek to
correct harmful behavior. In general, the idea of repentance is a form of taking responsibility for
our actions. When we seek to make amends for harm we have caused others, the act is an
opportunity to expand our compassion and humility. To truly benefit society, repentance must
focus on future behavior and accountability. The act of seeking repentance can also reinforce
one’s ability to forgive. When people are compelled to see their own faults through selfreflection
and/or repentance, they may become less judgmental of others, by seeing in all people
(including themselves) the capacity to help or harm. When people are less judgmental of others,
they are less likely to try to impose themselves on others in ways that may be oppressive. That is
not to say that a person should not be held accountable for her or his actions, but most religions
agree that it is the action that needs to be judged, not the person. In this sense, it gives a person
the opportunity and motive to not only make amends, but to improve her or his behavior in the
future. Since society is nothing more than a grouping of people, it takes on the qualities of its
constituents. The main benefit of a less judgmental, more forgiving society is greater peace.
(There will be more on this point later.)
Duty
One of the most demonstrable effects of religious thinking on society is from the concept
of duty. Duty can also be thought of as discipline, or obligation. Whereas in the past duty was
taught in the form of unquestioning obedience of authority, most religions (and people who
follow those religions) now realize the potential dangers of that thinking. (One cannot be an
obedient Nazi and still hold true to virtues like compassion and humility). Duty now is thought
of more in terms of fulfilling ones obligations. Each religion teaches the concept in a different
way. Islam teaches people to surrender to the will Allah. In Christian (and to a lesser extent,
Jewish) theology, the disobedience of Adam and Eve caused the fall of humanity from grace.
Wicca approaches the subject through two of the thirteen virtues, forbearance and devotion.
These two virtues teach people to commit themselves to a cause or relationship and to stick with
it through all potential obstacles. The horse, in Lakota mythology, represents endurance, not in a
physical sense, but an ethical endurance that helps one do the right thing even when faced with a
long struggle. Ancestor worshippers think of duty as a commitment to live by the high standards
set by their ancestors. Fortunately, many mainstream religious schools have abandoned the idea
that women must obey men, although remnants of female subordination still exist on many levels
in the monotheistic religions.
Duty to parents (and family in general), community, and government are strongly
emphasized in most religious circles. When ingrained in members of society, it can raise levels
of patriotism (whatever one’s particular definition of patriotism is). It reduces the tendency to
abandon relationships frivolously, and reduces isolationism that leads to stagnation of
progressive movements in community development (such as neighborhood revitalization
initiatives). The benefits of religion on the ethic of duty have even been studied. A 2001 study
conducted by The University of Pennsylvania and the Manhattan Institute called ”Good Dads:
Religion, Civic Engagement, and Paternal Involvement in Low-Income Communities,” found
that there seems to be a link between religious involvement and paternal involvement in these
communities. It’s not clear how they are related, but the evidence is compelling. Fathers in the
study, who were involved in religious activities, were also more likely to have dinner with their
kids and be involved in youth related activities. No such correlation has been noted in higher
income areas.
Peace and nonviolence
One of the most profound influences that religion has on society is through the concepts
of peace and nonviolence. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all promote nonviolence on the
assumption that God made us all and each life is sacred. Wicca promotes tolerance and kindness,
and values all entities as being connected to the Earth and to each other. Native American
religions such as Lakota also value life on the basis of a connection between us. Most ancestor
worship religions, especially the ones of eastern origin, view all life as sacred and protected by
spirits. There are wide ranging debates among all people of a religious nature as to what
circumstances, if any, warrant exceptions to the practice of nonviolence. Christianity, in general,
was a completely pacifist religion before it became the state religion of Rome. After it was
adopted as the official religion of the Roman Empire, Constantine (the first emperor) altered the
doctrine to approve of Christian participation in wars. Over time (and after the dissolution of the
Roman Empire) the official teaching changed to allow for the endorsement of war under two
conditions: 1) The action was for the defense of the common security of the nation, and 2) The
public authorities were not corrupt. In general, killing for self-defense is justified. The same is
true in Islam and Judaism. In Islam, one is required to stand up against oppression. Judaism does
not teach a specific “blanket” ideal regarding violence or self-defense, but most modern scholars
regard the commandment (Mitzvah) “Thou shalt not kill” to be more accurately translated “Thou
shalt not murder.” Obviously that translation opens the door to different interpretations of
pacifism. Whatever the specific views of each individual, the general affect of these beliefs is to
promote a more peaceful community. Most people are ingrained with the idea that violence is not
a way to solve problems, and that conditioning comes largely from religious influence. Whatever
their particular motivation (genuine compassion or fear of retribution), the average person will
not resort to violence under average conditions.
Justice
The ideas of pacifism and nonviolence are usually discussed hand-in-hand with that of
justice. All six religions have clear edicts mandating some form of justice in society. For the
Jews, their concept of justice comes not just from their belief in God, but also from their
experience as slaves in Egypt and Babylonia. Early Christians also suffered oppression (from the
Jews, and Romans), which influenced their concept of justice. Islamic justice is rooted in he
Qur’an, but also influenced by historic oppression (from the Makkans, and the Christians). The
entire Middle East has been, for centuries, sort of a circle of oppression. Religious oppression
usually happens when a political or economic agenda is attached to a religious cause, which is
often the case. When people get caught up in the politics or economics, they usually equate
justice with whatever their cause is while identifying any opposition as being unjust, regardless
of the merits of each side of the issue. This type of righteousness can often lead to severe
nationalism and disregard for the rights of one group or another. One example of this type of
manipulation of religious and national ardor is Nazi Germany in the 1930’s and 1940’s. Hitler
was able to garner massive national support by blaming the suffering of the “good Christians” of
Germany on the “greedy” Jews and the “evil” Bolsheviks. Many people of Germany regarded
their cause as a “just” one. The cause was further aided by the disregard of other religious
principles such as compassion and humility (more on this point later). In civilized societies, the
concepts of justice have resulted in the formation of justice systems. A justice system is usually
comprised of a law enforcement division, and a legal (court based) division. The justice system
helps to maintain order, and offer some kind of enforcement of shared public values (as much as
there can be consensus on those values). Most citizens function harmoniously with this system,
and that harmony is reinforced by religious values.
Tolerance
Tolerance is accepting other people’s right to hold different beliefs than you, even if you
don’t agree with those beliefs. Wicca, and Islam both have strong tenets against proselytizing (in
fact it’s one of Wicca’s only universally agreed upon beliefs). Tolerance is one of Wicca’s
thirteen virtues. Jews tend to focus more on behavior than a person’s belief system (“Just as the
sin offering atones for Israel, so righteousness atones for the peoples of the world” [Talmud,
Baba Batra 10b]). The Qur’an and the Christian Bible both endorse tolerance and this teaching is
mostly followed today. Some fundamentalists (like the Wahhabi sect of Islam and Christian
extremist groups of the American south) don’t tolerate anyone who has different beliefs than
they do.
Although a beneficial principle when applied, often tolerance is not shown to people
whose beliefs differ from the majority. Tolerance for the minority view is built into the
Constitutions of some countries (such as the United States Constitution, or the 1979 Constitution
of Spain). In many cases, the newly expressed constitutional tolerance was an attempt to bridge
the gap between the spirit of tolerance taught at a fundamental level in most religions, with the
exclusionary way it was being practiced. Slowly, by law or by virtue (and with a few bumps in
the road) tolerance is becoming more widely practiced. Many people, even if they are not
participating members of a religious group, are attempting to apply what they consider the“pure” virtues of the founders of their particular creed.
Community
Religious teachings define community in different ways. For most, community is taught
as something to build with fellow believers of your faith. Some groups (generally the more
orthodox ones) form communities unto themselves, isolated from the mainstream. For most
people, the idea of community elicits bonds of friendship and shared sufferings and joys. People
who feel connected to those around them in some way are more likely to care about others.
Often, communities are separated not by beliefs, but by geography (although sometimes, by
both). Some geographical areas have very different people living together in relative harmony.
Until recently, Haifa, Israel, which is populated by a mix of Jews, Christians, and Palestinians,
was just such a city. September 11th was not only a day of unprecedented suffering for most
Americans; it was the beginning of a period of unprecedented community. People of all beliefs
and nationalities pitched in to help in any way they could. Religious organizations, of all sorts,
offered assistance and organizational structure to many related causes. On a more local level, the
idea of community, in a sense, can be thought of as the ultimate application of all the other
ethical virtues discussed. All of those virtues are necessary for a community to function
harmoniously. When a community functions harmoniously, the people are generally happier and
more prosperous.
Since many religious and societal systems developed similar social and legal values
independent of each other, it is not clear whether religious ethics gave birth to social ethics or the
other way around. History gives us many different points of view on the subject. Although in
many cases the application is different, all six religions promote the common values discussed in
the preceding pages. When applied in their pure form, these common virtues help to move
society towards civility, and away from barbarism and self-righteous judgment.
The Individuals
I interviewed people from all six religions to try to determine how their lives benefit from
their understanding of their belief system. There were some similarities to their answers, and
some differences.
Rabbi Mark Greenspan (of Jewish faith) believes that Judaism can be broken down into
two main ideas: 1) “What is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow man,” and 2) There is one
God, and he is the moral arbiter of the universe. For the Rabbi, Judaism is a moral compass. It
gives him a philosophy to guide his decision-making. He derives comfort and solace from his
faith. He seems to feel a sense of optimism about the future based on his belief that people are
inherently good.
Dr. Faroque Kahn mailto:faroquekhan@yahoo.com (of Muslim faith) believes that we
were created by Allah to worship him. He believes we are given free will to choose between
right and wrong, but the guidelines for such behavior are laid out in the Qur’an. He believes
there will be a final judgment where everyone will be held accountable for the actions of their
lives. His beliefs give him a sense of focus and direction. They give him rules to live by, and he
feels that those rules add meaning and direction to his life. He also gets great satisfaction from
helping others in the Muslim community to learn to live, what he believes is, a righteous life. He
has derived a sense of value and purpose from his practice. Also, by belonging to a larger
community of “like-minded” people, he avoids the isolation that often leads to despair.
Sal Lumetta (of Lakota [Native American] faith) believes that Lakota emphasizes a spirit
of tolerance and unity. He feels that the goal of his religion is to help people live in harmony
with other people and the environment. He seeks to constantly purify himself and commune with
nature as a way of gaining spiritual and divine insight into the proper way to live to create that
harmony. His religion seems to be more of an outlook on life. He seems to genuinely respect all
life, and that respect affects how he treats others. When he “slips” and acts in a way that is not in
accord with his ideals, he regrets it, and tries to purify himself and gain wisdom to overcome,
what he believes, are negative tendencies. He acknowledges his own fallibility, and therefore
does not hold others to a standard of perfection that he himself cannot attain. By letting go of
judgment in this way, he attains a degree of inner peace.
Norilko Morimoto (of Seichonoie [Ancestor worship] faith) believes that her deceased
ancestors guide her from beyond to live a righteous life. Through prayer, she believes she can
attune herself to her ancestors’ wisdom. She uses this wisdom to guide her daily actions. The
belief that her life is guided by a “higher” wisdom gives her confidence, and helps to calm her in
the midst of the many worldly concerns around her. She feels her life is going in a positive
direction, even though it is not perceivable by her mortal senses.
Margaret Gillian (of Catholic, Christian faith) does not agree with many of the principles
and goals she believes her church professes. She feels the Catholic Church can be misogynistic,
and authoritarian. She feels priest tend to speak “above” the congregation instead of relating to
people in a down-to-Earth manner. For her, religion should focus on ethics and behavior, and
apply the principles universally. She derives little benefit from weekly church attendance
(except, perhaps, to socialize with friends). Her main benefit from her beliefs, in her opinion, is a
somewhat selfish one. She seeks solace and comfort when times are bad. She uses prayer as a
means to vent frustration and anger. She does not know if this desperate prayer has an affect, but
it makes her feel better. She believes she is being selfish because she does not give back in the
form of daily prayer, or devoted reverence to the church. I disagree with her. I feel she tries very
hard to live by the ethics she believes the church is supposed to endorse. In that sense, she is
giving back more than many. As far as her lack of reverence for the church, that will persist as
long as she feels that the church does not completely represent the values to which she feels
Catholics should aspire. In a way, it can be said that her defiance of protocol is a benefit of the
strength of her principles.
Liz Kramer mailto:saadiira@aol.com (of Wiccan faith) believes that the Supreme Being
is not a known entity, but an unknowable force that pervades everything and everyone and is
gender neutral. She does not believe in Satan or any form of universal punishment. She takes to
heart the motto “Do as you will, but harm none.” The egalitarian nature of Wiccan philosophy
reinforces her tendency to support civil rights. Like Native Americans, Wiccans believe that we
are all connected. This belief compels most followers to respect others and treat them with
dignity, a trait Liz seems to share. For Liz, a sense of belonging is the greatest benefit of her
beliefs. She looked for many years to find a religion that “fits.” She didn’t like the judgment or
organized nature of many of the mainstream religions. Wicca does not try to force her to
conform to a narrow view of what it considers appropriate behavior. She believes Wicca inspires
people to constantly seek knowledge. That belief drives her to learn and, ultimately, grow as a
person.
Protocols and Principles
There are many people for whom religion is a formality and nothing more. These people
adopt the ritualistic aspects of their religions into their lives, but fail to integrate the fundamental
principles. For some people, the principles are disposable when they are not convenient. Some
people might feel a conflict of interest between following the principles of their religion, and
their chosen lifestyle or vocation. These people may hope that the token gesture of ceremonial
attendance is enough for their salvation, an idea somewhat supported by concepts such as the
Catholic absolution (the belief that a priest can “remove” your sin at will). Still others attend
religious services to make the appearance of being a pious person. They are concerned with how
others perceive them, but may make no attempt to live by the principles of their religion. It is not
uncommon for people to attend church on Sunday, or Temple on Saturday, but then go out into
the community and treat others poorly. Some people practice daily prayer simply out of a feeling
of obligation or habit, instead of using it as an opportunity to inform their daily actions. This
phenomenon is nothing exceptional and certainly not unique to religious circles. The problem is,
often these people become self-righteous and judgmental. Without the compassion and humility
to temper ones interactions with others, these people often become intolerant of anyone who
holds different views then they do. They often take a superior attitude based on status within the
community or even within the religious organization. She or he might be a large contributor to a
church or charity organization, yet devoid of the kind of integrity the organization promotes. One
example of such a person is Jim Bakker, the former TV evangelist. Jim frequently condemned
adulterers on his TV show. Then in 1987 it was discovered that he had had an adulterous affair.
He also solicited a great deal of money from viewers to do “God’s work” (presumably to feed
and cloth the poor). It turns out he used that money to give himself a $1.9 million a year salary,
six luxury homes, a Rolls Royce, a Mercedes, and so on. He manipulated millions and profited
from it. Many people sent in more money than they could afford hoping for “salvation.” For
some of these people, that money could have meant a comfortable retirement. From all outward
appearances, Bakker, like many televangelists, was a person of virtue. He not only attended
church, he owned his own ministry. He conducted all the ceremonies, and made all the outward
gestures of a religious man. He just didn’t integrate the most basic principles of his religion
(Christianity) into his life. Adulterous double standard aside, when people are looking for
answers and help and all they get is judgment and condemnation, it only serves to diminish their
self-esteem and augment their sense of hopelessness.
This point reiterates the importance of non-judgment. The concept of not passing
judgment on others is a universal principle of religion, however it is rarely practiced. The
dangers are manifold. In the above example, many people passed a positive judgment on Jim
Bakker. The judgment seemed to be sound. He had all the outwards signs of being pious and
righteous. Because of their judgment, they took action in the form of sending in donations, and
traveling to his sermons. Not only were the people who devoted themselves to him hurt by his
betrayals of their devotion, but also many, actual needy people could have been helped with the
donations. Many other people, who sought “miracle” cures, did not seek out medical help and
paid for their misjudgment with their lives. (Investigative journalists have followed up on people
who receive these “miracle cures” by the likes of Bakker, and not a single person who has been
questioned stayed “cured.”)
On the opposite side of the coin, we have situations like that which happened to Richard
Jewel. He is the man who was falsely accused of planting the bomb that killed one and injured
many at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics. Many people passed instant judgment on him, depriving
him of any reasonable social existence for a long time. Probably not until another suspect was
named did Jewel escape the eye of suspicion. His case is severe, but not uncommon. People pass
judgment on others all the time. In many cases, they use that judgment to dehumanize and
criminalize individuals, and sometimes, large groups of people whose only crime is being
different than they are. That judgment is often disguised as “morality” (a very subjective term, I
much prefer ethics) with seemingly religious people acting as the moral arbiters.
One of the more recent examples of this type of behavior is the abhorrent treatment of
homosexuals by individuals claiming to uphold the “moral” standards of society. Unfortunately,
when these “pillars” of moral justice proclaim the indecency of groups like homosexuals, the
effect is widespread. Not only are there violent attacks on innocent homosexuals, but also
societal out casting, because many, otherwise compassionate, and tolerant people have been
conditioned to believe that the behavior of the out cast group or person is immoral. What might
be considered unethical, or even cruel behavior normally, is excused because the target group is
objectified and put into a category (evil, immoral, disruptive, etc.) For that group, then,
oppressive action is justified, and sometimes, encouraged. Jerry Falwell, an influential religious
figure in The United States, made the following statement in regard to September 11th: “I really
believe that the Pagans, the abortionists and the feminists, and the gays and the lesbians who are
actively trying to make an alternative lifestyle, the ACLU, People for the American Way, all of
them who have tried to secularize America. I point the finger in their face and say ‘you helped
this happen.’” He later apologized for his statement, but within his apology, he re-stated his
assertion. He also proclaimed Islam an “evil” religion and Mohammad, the main Muslim
prophet, a “terrorist.” These types of sentiments are not uncommon for him. Surely the principles
of non-judgment, compassion, tolerance, and humility are lost on him. The hatred and civil
unrest he inspires in his millions of followers, and the backlash he has caused against gays and
Muslims among others, are formidable. He is another example of a man who follows all the
protocols (goes to church, prays, communes with his fellow believers, etc.), but neglects the
basic tenets of Christianity. The frightening part is that he is very politically active, and has been
successful at influencing political opinion on some of these issues of “morality.”
Some would claim that the impact on society of the attitudes towards homosexuals is
minimal since homosexuals comprise a relative minority of the world’s population. However,
even if we ignore the social degradation that happens when we open the door to any
discrimination, the same reasoning has been used to oppress racial and ethnic minorities, and
women. All the authorities of the Catholic and most protestant churches opposed women’s
suffrage. Susan B. Anthony was in constant struggle with the likes of Brigham H. Roberts and
William H. Channing (Two religious lay-leaders of her time) over a woman’s right to vote. They
claimed that women were not equal to men (a position they found support for in the ambiguously
anachronistic Bible), and therefore should not have equal rights. (In the interest of presenting a
balanced picture, it was religious figures in Michigan such as Elizabeth Margaret Chandler, and
Zachariah Chandler [no relation] who first fought for the abolition of slavery in the 1830’s.)
Most of the time, violations of religious principles (or secular humanist principles for the
non-religiously inclined) are much more mundane than the above examples. As mentioned
previously, sometimes there are exceptions to the basic principles. All six of the religions studied
here would advocate lying to protect an innocent life. Sometimes these exceptions are used to
rationalize one’s actions. A person may lie to another person under the guise of “protecting
them” from the truth. The reality usually is, that they are protecting themselves from having to
tell the truth and face the consequences. I have met husbands who consistently lie to their wives
about their “extracurricular” activities, yet they attend church every Sunday, pray at night, send
their kids to parochial schools and so on. Many people lead a perfectly religious (and virtuous)
life at home, but engage in all sorts of unprincipled behavior at work. They might steal from their
employer (or from customers or clients), slander and lie about their fellow employees to get
ahead, or use power to manipulate or coerce a subordinate into a sexual affair. Others may
overlook environmental damage done by their company in order to make greater profits. Many
people might even justify their actions as being in accord with “the way things are done,” or by
claiming that their behavior is necessary for survival. Some of these people feel that their“salvation” or value in society lay outside of their behavior. They believe that their religious
rituals, donations to charity, public support for religious causes, reverence to clergy, and belief in
a certain deity or dogma are all that is needed to qualify them as “good” (and subsequently reap
the rewards promised by their particular religion). The actions of these people often hurt society
in various ways. They may damage the environment. They might put people out of work. They
hurt the individuals around them, from their families to their coworkers, through their lies,
infidelity, and sexual harassment. Ultimately, what hurts the individual hurts society, since
society is nothing but a collection of individuals. On a subjective level, this type of behavior
creates an atmosphere of mistrust, paranoia, and fear. When people live under that cloud, they
are less creative, less productive, and less able to add value to their communities.
There is a more insidious group of people who may make no outward gestures of
impropriety, yet are just as guilty of violating the principles of their professed faiths. These
people are often looked up to by most in their communities. They go through all the motions of
piety. They’re even honest and forthright in business and at home. However, they have
prejudices that they hide from all except those they think might be sympathetic. These people
quietly promote or express their views to a select few, usually including their children. Through
their actions, the vile concept of inherent superiority of certain groups over others is propagated
and sustained for future generations to have to deal with. Their tactics demonstrate a total lack of
courage (one of the premiere principles of most religions). Their motives reek of judgment and
malice. Their legacy is one of hate and disunity.
Before moving on, I would like to say a couple of final words on non-judgment. Nonjudgment, as advocated by religion, is not the same as apathy or indifference to wrongful actions. All of the religions studied here advocate that their practitioners stand up against injustice. In that sense, one must, at times, pass judgment on actions that cause harm to others. The problem when that judgment moves past the actions and to the person is that it creates a sense of selfsuperiority. For instance, to classify someone else as “evil,” by default puts one in the category of “good.” People begin to believe that “goodness” and “evil” are inherent qualities that are not mutable. Self-reflection, and inner reformation and struggle are abandoned by the self-righteous. In the same vane, to pass judgment on oneself, also limits growth. When a person has decided that she or he “is” a certain way, that person has resigned herself or himself to staying that way.
Many people have very low opinions of themselves and believe they are incapable of positive change or beneficial actions. This kind of self-degradation is very common, and causes people to spend an undue amount of time dwelling on past actions, and not enough time working for a better future. They may continue to act in a non-productive or even harmful way because they have decided that they are destined to act that way. They may fail to realize, in themselves and others, that behavior, at each and every moment, is a choice, not an obligation. On a personal level, self-judgment can lead to suffering. Perhaps it is the reason that two people can return from service at war, and one can recidivate while the other cannot. It depends on how they judge themselves.
Arguably, the most horrific violation of religious principles (for an individual and
society) in recent history is Hitler’s Germany in the 1930’s and 1940’s. It is unfortunate that so
very many people were complicit in the mass murders of Jews, Greek Orthodox Christians and
Atheists. Hitler considered himself a good Christian until the day he died. He spoke religious
rhetoric, had religious slogans emblazoned on Nazi uniforms and machinery (“Gott mit uns”
[God with us] was carved into every SS belt buckle), and conducted religious ceremonies (such
as having priests sprinkle “holy water” on his troops before battle). Though he disliked the
hierarchy of the Catholic Church (mostly because it was centered in Rome and not Berlin), he
was a member in good standing his entire life, never having been excommunicated. He stated
plainly in his book Mein Kampf that he believed in natural evolution and special creation. In his
eyes, the Aryan race was descendent from Adam and Eve, while everyone else evolved from
apes. He firmly believed that he was doing God’s work. He further stated in Mein Kampf, “Therefore, I am convinced that I am acting as the agent of our Creator. By fighting off the Jews,
I am doing the Lord’s work.” Mein Kampf never made it to the banned books list of the Catholic
Church. In a Christmas celebration speech in 1926 he said, “Christ was the greatest early fighter
in the battle against the world enemy, the Jews…the work that Christ started but could not finish
I-Adolf Hitler- will conclude.” While not religious in the traditional sense, Hitler dedicated his
life to what he considered the “Christian” duty to avenge the murder of Christ by the Jews. He
considered the “humane, and emotionless” execution of Jews to be a divine mandate.
Early in Hitler’s political career, he received a great deal of opposition from the Catholic
Center Party, a powerful and politically active group of lay Catholics in Germany. While the
Vatican maintained anti-Jewish policies until after World War II in the territories it controlled or
had influence in (such as forbidding Jews to take any employment other than loan shark, a very
low status, undesirable job), many average Catholics in Germany opposed Hitler on various
grounds, some ethical, some political. Hitler tried to control the Church in Germany, and
eventually succeeded in erasing any lines of separation between church and state.
Meanwhile, the Vatican, having lost considerable power and influence during the 1800’s with Italy gaining independence, and much of Europe embracing Democracy, sought to extend its influence, in other ways, directly over every Diocese. In 1869, the “Vatican Council” was convened at which time it was voted that the Pope is “infallible in matters of faith and morality.” (It was not a unanimous vote, or one accomplished without much coercion). At the same time, it was decided that new “concordats,” or religious treaties, had to be negotiated with every Catholic territory in the world. This goal eventually became the life’s work (and maybe obsession) of Eugenio Pacelli (who later became Pope Pius XII). In 1917, he accomplished a secret concordat with Serbia, in effect nullifying a centuries old protectorate agreement with Austria-Hungary.
The resulting tensions were among the main precipitating events of World War I. After the war,
Pacelli sought concordats with the German states and the Reich (the German national
government). He achieved agreements with the individual states of Prussia, Baden, and Bavaria,
but a concordat with the Reich eluded him. Having the largest Catholic population of any
country in the world, the Reich was central to the Vatican’s goal of unification. They were
finally able to achieve their goal, but at a great cost. On September 10th 1933, the Reich
concordat was signed by, then, Cardinal Secretary Eugenio Pacelli and Counselor Eugen Klen
(Hitler’s envoy). Among the stipulations demanded by the Reich (and agreed upon by Pacelli),
was a cessation of all political activity by the Catholic Center Party, non-interference in German
affairs by the Vatican, and State control of all religious activities. The Vatican in turn got to
appoint Bishops, and have mandatory Catholic education of all school children. Pacelli also tried
to get acceptance of a “pro memoria” asking for leniency towards Jews who converted to
Catholicism (No leniency was requested for Jews that remained Jewish). The addendum was
refused. Pacelli signed anyway. He was good to his word. The Vatican expressed no opposition
to Hitler or the Reich at any time before or during the war.
With the agreement signed, Catholic criticism of the Reich fell silent. What was a great
opposition to a great evil became the last removed obstacle in Hitler’s quest for power. There
were a few dissenters, people of courage who stood up against Hitler, even facing condemnation
from their own church, and great risk to their lives. Most Catholics, however, stood by
apathetically; confining themselves to their daily rituals while unspeakable atrocities took place
around them.
To say that religious principles were violated during World War II is an understatement.
Outwardly, many of the people involved were highly religious. They practiced all the protocols
(church attendance, religious education, daily prayer, commitment to the sacraments [such as
baptism, communion, confirmation, and church ordained weddings]). Pacelli even devoted his
entire life to the church. At no time though, was any real courage, humility, compassion,
charity, honesty, or respect for life shown by any of the people involved. Although many
religious people today (including many Catholics) would agree that to uphold any agreement at
the violation of one’s conscience is not an option (or the act of a good Christian), most German
Catholics of the 1930’s would not dare violate a Papal decree. I discussed earlier the dangers of
taking obedience and respect too far. No series of events makes that point more strongly than the
ones I have described above.
Certainly, World War II is not the only example of religion being used as a tool of
oppression rather than a beacon of hope and enlightenment. History has many such occurrences.
In 1000 AD Mahmud Ghaznavi, a Muslim leader, invaded India for what would be the first of many such invasions (15-17). He was a deeply religious man (he observed all the protocols of Islam), and one of his main goals was to propagate Islam. However, he is known in India as one of the most brutal oppressors in history. He not only conquered the land, he looted their treasures, destroyed their Hindu idols and temples, executed civilians, and enslaved much of the population. Of course, history varies depending on perspective. Some Muslims consider him to be a great hero, much the way some Christians consider Richard the Lionhearted (an equally brutal leader in the Crusades) to be a great hero